Business Communications Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Communications - Assignment Example Requirements include: Bachelors Degree in Accounting/Finance; Sound knowledge of accounting policies and procedures and of basic financial techniques for planning, forecasting, and related analyses; Strong analytical skills required; CPA a plus. To apply for this exciting position, please contact me at timothy.ponzio@parkerlynch.com Job Experience: 1-3 Years http://jobview.monster.com/Financial-Analyst-Team-Environment-Job-Parsippany-NJ-US-112781073.aspx The job is appealing because it is totally related to my interest. I want to build my career in the research. The job posting and the requirements are interesting and can help me build my career in the financial market. Additionally it is the job posting of Parker & Lynch, which is located in New Jersey. The NJ is considered as one of the most appealing place of the world to build career in finance. Moreover, Parker & Lynch is a firm totally focused in financial services. Therefore, it is more convincing and appealing to work with hi ghly professional financial analysts that can help me learn a lot regarding the Financial Market. Cover Letter: Dear Sir/Madam, I’m a candidate for Level-III June-13 Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA) program from CFA Institute, Virginia, USA. I've fairly detailed understanding of professional and ethical standards regarding investment management. I’ve done MBA (Finance) from highly recognized University. During my studies my core modules were Financial Statement Analysis, Corporate Finance, and Fixed Income, Portfolio Management, Quantitative Techniques, Equity, Money Market and Capital Market. I grasped a holistic view of the functions and practice of the financial planning. I have got deep attention to detail and that always helps me in all my analytical tasks. I am fully focused on my career. I am looking for a job that gives me a space to accomplish meaningful and worthy achievements for the company in such a way that I can also grow along with the organizational o utcomes. I have a crystal clear vision about my possible placement and that is achieving quick results individually and as a part of a team. I have got good ability to interpret situations and I am strongly focused on activities that generate value to the company and its customers. This is a brief overview of my studies, my professional experience & personality. I hope if given a chance, I will definitely be an asset for your Institution. Looking forward to hearing you soon. Kind Regards; XYZ. xyz@yahoo.com Curriculum Vitae ABC Address: Tel: Email: Objective education work experience Uiversity Projects other skills INTErests rEFERENCES To obtain a distinct position in the global financial industry where I can play my role in analysing financial instruments and get to the top while enhancing my analytical skills. CFA Level III Candidate MBA Finance MTO at an Investment Boutique Intern at Walls Fargo Work Cited "Financial Analyst/ Team Environment Jobs in Parsippany, New Jersey - Park er & Lynch

Developing Shop Online in China Essay Example for Free

Developing Shop Online in China Essay I. The development of new technology A. The Internet communication skills B. Computer program systems 1. The feedback-based reputation system 2. The E-payment system II. The characteristics of shopping online A. Low-price strategy B. Diversity of products III. Some changes in people’s lifestyle A. Logistics development makes life more convenient B. People prefer to stay at home because of the Internet Developing Shopping Online in China Have you had a good experience of shopping online? It might have been common in the US; however, the only approach for Chinese to buy clothes or food was to go to the mall or supermarket ten years ago. Shopping online has become more and more popular in China and has been adopted as a common way to shop. A report, conducted by iResearch, an online market research company, said that the first year’s trade volume of Chinese online market soared 95.8% (as cited in Ding, 2009,  ¶2). People in China now prefer to click to the website, select products and make sure to purchase. There are two common types of e-commerce websites in China: B2C and C2C. B2C presents business-to-consumer, and C2C stands for consumer-to-consumer. A few e-commerce websites, such as Dangdang (www.dangdang.com.cn, the largest and most popular B2C website in China), and Taobao (www.taobao.com, the largest C2C website in China, owned by Alibaba.com), â€Å"have won great success and established good reputation among online consumers†(Lu, Zhou Bin, 2007,  ¶1). The reasons that shopping online has been developed and improved in such a high speed in China are the development of technology, the characteristics of shopping, and the improvement of people’s lifestyle. The first reason why shopping online has become a significant role in China is the development of the technology, such as network communication skills, e-payment system and the feedback-based reputation system. The Internet has had widespread effects on Chinese since it was first introduced into China in 1995. The Internet, a recent innovation, has become a significant intermediary for not only communication but also commerce. Compared with traditional shopping approaches, the features of the Internet will be considered by buyers, and people will think whether the characteristics of the Internet are preferred when shopping online (Joseph Dong, 2006,  ¶6). The three steps when consumers are shopping in the Internet are to click their mouse, search for what they want to buy, and make sure to purchase, while they even don’t have to talk to sellers. The convenience of the Internet leads shopping online to be the first choice. Moreover, most consumers are concerned with computer program systems related to payment safety or product reputation when shopping online. Such computer program systems have been set up to ensure consumers’ profits. A lot of online shopping websites, such as eBay.com and Taobao.com use feedback-based reputation system, in which the sellers’ and buyers’ reputation and credit will be recorded and marked based on transaction in the past. It means a lot in online C2C market, and the seller will be trusted if s/he has a good reputation, which brings about good sales (Bo, Zhangxi, Bingjia, 2010,  ¶20). Nelson (1970) sorted products into experience and search goods. People want to try the quality of experience products right before they buy the products, while people have to see search products through some information provided online. In other words, the products bought online are search goods. People have to decide whether to buy only after reading a few lines of words (as cited in Bo, Zhangxi, Bingjia, 2010,  ¶22). Without feedback-based reputation system, potential consumers would not have accepted the new approach of shopping. Also, the former comments and scores from buyers and the scores which buyers get from sellers, depending on whether the buyers pay in time or not make feedback-based reputation system become a special credit system for not only vendors but also consumers. Another important system researched and developed for shopping online is payment system which protects consumers’ money from being taken away by sellers without receiving products or not being satisfied with the products. â€Å"Alipayment†, which belongs to Taobao.com, is the typical payment system known among online buyers. Even though there are still some shortcomings needed to be improved in these systems, technology makes it possible and promotes the development of shopping online in China. Secondly, the characteristics of shopping online are considered to be another important reason that promotes the development of shopping online in China. Low-price strategy, diversity of products and convenience of shopping style are three of the most obvious features of shopping online, which attracts more and more people in China involved in shopping online, and not only young people but also old people are interested in online shopping. Price and type are two of the most significant features of product, which influence buyers’ choice when they are shopping online (Bo, Zhangxi, Bingjia, 2010,  ¶21). Because sellers can reduce operation and storage cost, products online are usually less expens ive than products bought in a traditional way. Lower price has been one of the most important factors, which makes shopping online the best choice in China. There are 10,000 shops which were opened everyday in 2008, while more than 140 million Chinese became loyal customers of shops online (Lan, 2009,  ¶4). Nevertheless, product price is sometimes connected with cheating and fraud, and buyers can’t recognize whether or not the sellers online are cheating on product price. That will be an important issue in online shopping (Bo, Zhangxi, Bingjia, 2010,  ¶21). Had sellers online had the same price as traditional sellers or higher price, the online market would not have bloomed. Another characteristics of shopping online, diversity of products, promotes the development of shopping online. Imagine that there are two choices for consumers when shopping: buying goods in different shops or buying all stuff in one big shop. Obviously, people prefer to shop in one place and purchase all the stuff they list. Like shopping in a b ig shopping mall, people buy all they need online on one website without driving out or walking a long distance, crowding in the crowd and sweating in different shops. All consumers need is to search what they want, and compare the prices and comments. Liu claims, â€Å"Best selling online items include clothing, cosmetics, home furnishing, outdoor sports equipment, personal computer, jewelry, laptops and small home appliance†(Liu, 2009,  ¶27). The characteristics of shopping online, low-price strategy, diversity of products and convenience of shopping style, attract more and more people and lead to the promotion of shopping online. Thirdly, the development of people’s lifestyle contributes to the emergence and development of shopping online in China. With the rapid growth of Chinese economy, not only has per capita income improved significantly, but also people are getting accustomed to the faster pace of life. That involved in the development of shopping online as an important factor. Due to the faster pace of life, a kind of new industry—express delivery industry—has arisen. The convenience of shopping online is considered to be a significant reason for consumers. Because of the development of express delivery industry, which belongs to modern logistics, the buyers don’t have to go out to take stuff back home, and just sit in front of the monitor to wait for delivering. Express delivery industry is developing in a rapid pace because of the boom of online shopping. In China, people now are interested in sitting in front of a computer, clicking the mouse, and shopping online (Liu, 2012,  ¶1). The development of express delivery industry has been outstanding in recent years, which has been proven by a year-on-year increase of 20% from 2009. There are 542,000 people working for express delivery industry, and express delivery companies have been set up everywhere around China. Because of the appearance of online shopping, the express delivery industry developed better and faster (Liu, 2011,  ¶3, 4, 5, 6). At the same time, express delivery industry promotes the development of shopping online. The promotion of express delivery industry makes more and more people trust in shopping online.What consumers need to do after making sure to purchase is to wait for stuff being delivered in a few days. Such convenience really helps people who suffer from the faster pace of life: they don’t have to go out to shop, and just stay at home to get everything they want. Another change in people’s lifestyle is that people prefer to stay at home rather than go out for fun. Because of the Internet, online entertainment has become the most popular way to spend time. Not only chatting online or playing online games but also shopping online has been a significant role in people’s daily life. Evidences are that not only can people buy concrete goods online, but also a lot of abstract goods, such as game cards and mobile phone recharge cards, can be found in online shops. The changes of people’s lifestyle and the emergence and development of express delivery industry make contribution to the development of shopping online in China, which makes life more convenient. In conclusion, the development of technology, the characteristics of shopping and the improvement of people’s lifestyle are three main reasons why shopping online has become an important role in China. Due to the developing of shopping online, a new approach of shopping has appeared which makes shopping more convenient for consumers; moreover, it promotes the development of tertiary industry and economic development in China. Shopping online offers many jobs in China; for example, Taobao.com, the biggest shopping online website, provided 570,000 jobs in 2008. Moreover, shopping online offers much more chances for young persons between 23 and 32 years old to run their online shops with government’s support (Lan, 2009,  ¶16, 17, 18). Because of the development of Chinese shopping online, many overseas shopping websites have noticed the future of this market flourish. Alipay, third party payment tool, has enrolled 300 overseas online shops to get access to Chinese online shopping market (Lan, 2009,  ¶9). In other words, the local online shoppers will face more opportunities in the future. References Bo, X., Zhangxi, L., Bingjia, S. (2010). Factors affecting consumer behaviors in online buy-it-now auctions. Internet Research, 20(5), 509-526. doi:10.1108/10662241011084086 Ding, W. (2009). Cheaper prices or better services?. Beijing Review, 52(37), 28-29. Lan, X. (2009). Online shopping spree (cover story). Beijing Review, 52(37), 26-27. Liu, X. (2009). You want it, the web has it. Beijing Review, 52(37), 30-31. Liu, X. (2011). Express reform for speedy deliveries. Beijing Review, 54(30), 36-37. Liu, X. (2012). Delivering satisfaction. Beijing Review, 55(2), 34-35. Lu, Y., Zhou, T., Bin, W. (2007). A comparison of prices in electronic markets and traditional markets of China. Chinese Economy, 40(5), 67-83. doi:10.2753/CES1097-1475400504 Joseph, R., Dong, S. (2006). E-commerce adoption among Chinese consumers: an exploratory study. Journal Of International Consumer Marketing, 18(3), 33-55. doi:10.1300/J046v18n03-03

The Inner-City Problems and Solving Them Essay -- Papers

The Inner-City Problems and Solving Them There are many problems that can be clearly seen in the inner city. Problems such as crime, poor housing (perhaps slums), and unemployment are all apparent. However unemployment levels are gradually dropping. Lack of money gives rise to the problems so are often seen in the lower class areas of cities. On the whole the perception of the inner-city areas has the image of poverty and overcrowding which faces many cities across Britain today in whatever proportion. The first as such it the Economic which inner-city areas have long suffered due to lack of investment especially after the 1940's when a lot of money was put into New Towns. Many of the houses built were made from poor fabric and cheap materials which within time will make them liable to be damaged. This is the main problem arising from the issue of poor housing. Few Industries have built or for that matter expanded in an Inner-city location partly due to the environment, which surrounds it. Social Inequalities also play a part in British City the following characteristics are often present in many of them: Lack of basic amenities, many houses of which lack any sort of bathroom Overcrowding- large families may live in small houses, or families may live in poorly built high rise flats. On the whole we can say that there are high infant mortality and death rates Families have a low income Single parent families. There are also the environmental problem which affect these areas- The Inner-city areas may suffer from noise and air pollution caused by heavy traffic and the few remaining fac... ...o mortgage properties in the inner areas, and local plan authorities have become more flexible in their plan making. The public and private sectors are much more willing to improve enterprise zone and industrial improvement. New voluntary and community bases organisations have developed particularly concerned with environmental improvements and employment creation. The physical environment has been improved, with vacant land and buildings being put to new, and also the removal of some of the worst dereliction. However the economic point of view in the inner city has deteriorated, with more unemployment and the closure of many firms. However unemployment will probably remain high, especially among the poorly educated and disadvantaged, which will, especially in children, lead to further problems. The Inner-City Problems and Solving Them Essay -- Papers The Inner-City Problems and Solving Them There are many problems that can be clearly seen in the inner city. Problems such as crime, poor housing (perhaps slums), and unemployment are all apparent. However unemployment levels are gradually dropping. Lack of money gives rise to the problems so are often seen in the lower class areas of cities. On the whole the perception of the inner-city areas has the image of poverty and overcrowding which faces many cities across Britain today in whatever proportion. The first as such it the Economic which inner-city areas have long suffered due to lack of investment especially after the 1940's when a lot of money was put into New Towns. Many of the houses built were made from poor fabric and cheap materials which within time will make them liable to be damaged. This is the main problem arising from the issue of poor housing. Few Industries have built or for that matter expanded in an Inner-city location partly due to the environment, which surrounds it. Social Inequalities also play a part in British City the following characteristics are often present in many of them: Lack of basic amenities, many houses of which lack any sort of bathroom Overcrowding- large families may live in small houses, or families may live in poorly built high rise flats. On the whole we can say that there are high infant mortality and death rates Families have a low income Single parent families. There are also the environmental problem which affect these areas- The Inner-city areas may suffer from noise and air pollution caused by heavy traffic and the few remaining fac... ...o mortgage properties in the inner areas, and local plan authorities have become more flexible in their plan making. The public and private sectors are much more willing to improve enterprise zone and industrial improvement. New voluntary and community bases organisations have developed particularly concerned with environmental improvements and employment creation. The physical environment has been improved, with vacant land and buildings being put to new, and also the removal of some of the worst dereliction. However the economic point of view in the inner city has deteriorated, with more unemployment and the closure of many firms. However unemployment will probably remain high, especially among the poorly educated and disadvantaged, which will, especially in children, lead to further problems.

Every dark cloud has a silver lining.

Dialogue between the Bank Manager and a client about opening an account. Client: Sir, Excuse me. May I come in? B. Manager: Yes you may come in. Client: I am Miss. Mary and I come from Oakmont. Manager: What can do for you? Sir, I would like to open an account in your Bank. Manager: May I know your profession? Sir, I working as secondary Grade Teacher in Oakmont High School at Superman Manager: Why do you want to open an account in the state Bank of India? Client: Sir, I have Just Joined my duty in the school last week.It's a mandatory or the teachers to have an account opened in the state Bank of India, because the salary is paid through the banks. Manager: Well, then please fill up the application form to open an account in your name. Client: Yes, Sir. Can I get the application form? Manager: Yes, you can collect from the next desk. Prior to It please produce the following document: 1. Your ID proof 2. Residential proof 3. Pan Card 4. Ration card 5. Age proof etc†¦ Client: Sir , excuse me right now I do not have all the documents. Can I come tomorrow, sir?Manager: Yes, It Is better that if come with all the comments tomorrow it would be very easy to fill up the form. Client: Sir, should I take the application form and go? Manager: Yes, it would be better so that tomorrow the work will go faster. (The client goes near the gate, as he reaches the gate the manager calls her back) Manager: Hello, Miss. Mary. Client: Yes, Sir. Manager: Something which Is very Important that I have forgotten. Client: What Is it SST Manager: It Is regarding the witness. Client: What It means by witness?Manager: Witness means that the person one who has the bank account In our Ann. Has to Introduce you to the bank. Client: Is It compulsory, Sir. Manager: Yes, It Is mandatory. Otherwise you will not be able open an account. Client: Thank you very much, Sir. I am very much pleased with you for Glenn me all the Information needed to open an account In your bank. Manager: k. Thank yo u. Client: Thank you so much, Sir. I shall come with a witness and with all the documents tomorrow. Every dark cloud has a silver lining. By monogamy 23 Manager: Yes, you can collect from the next desk. Prior to it please produce the Can I come tomorrow, sir?Manager: Yes, it is better that if come with all the Manager: Something which is very important that I have forgotten. Client: What is it Sir? Manager: It is regarding the witness. Client: What it means by witness? Manager: Witness means that the person one who has the bank account in our bank has to introduce you to the bank. Client: Is it compulsory, Sir. Manager: Yes, It is mandatory. Otherwise you will not be able open an account. Client: Thank you very much, Sir. I am very much pleased with you for giving me all the information needed to open an account in your bank. Manager: k. Thank you.

Why is it important to develop relationships in infant and toddler care?

During their first years of life it is crucial that infants develop confidence, self-esteem and a feeling of security and trust in the people who care for them. These factors give them a secure base for all of their subsequent social and emotional development. Babies who develop this â€Å"emotional security† are then more likely to become toddlers who have the confidence to â€Å"walk alone. † Alicia Lieberman discusses this concept of â€Å"walking alone† in her book, The Emotional Life of the Toddler.In order to become independent learners, confident to explore the world around them and try new things, toddlers must first of all develop a sense of trust. This sense of trust builds when the infant has developed secure attachments with caregivers, and feels reassured, valued, respected and truly cared for. Obviously a child whose emotional needs are not being met through the development of secure and positive relationships with caregivers, will focus more on get ting those needs met than on exploring and learning.Research on what helps children be successful at school, carried out by Heart Start through the â€Å"Zero to Three† organization, emphasises the need for children to be curious in order to learn. The research identified seven characteristics of successful learners, and among them, curiosity. Infants and toddlers have a natural, healthy curiosity, a trait that should be encouraged in a safe way by their caregivers, as it is vital for their confidence, self-esteem and learning. Those children who do not develop secure attachments to their caregivers will be less likely to show this lively curiosity in their world.Helen Raikes has described in her 1996 article, A Secure Base for Babies: Applying Attachment Theory Concepts to the Infant Care Setting, how babies that had developed secure attachments were more likely to explore their surroundings, join in with play and interact with the adults in the setting. These infants know t hat they can look back and â€Å"return to base† if need be. It was the British psychiatrist, John Bowlby who identified four stages of attachment of the child to the mother or the primary caregiver.He noted that during the third stage, (between the approximate ages of 7 and 24 months), infants often develop a strong attachment to the primary caregiver and may develop â€Å"separation anxiety† if that caregiver is replaced by someone else. Continuity of the caregiver, the development of a consistent, caring relationship with one person, is therefore very important for infants at this stage, as they may experience much trauma if a change of caregiver takes place at this time. However, the first characteristic of successful children, identified by the Heart Start research, was that of confidence.Children’s feelings of competence and confidence develop as a result of secure, positive relationships with their caregivers. Also, the confidence that comes from having a clear sense of their own identity means that children are more likely to develop empathy and respect for others and feel relaxed and secure in the company of other adults. Confident children who can interact successfully with their peer group will more easily develop the social skills needed for their future success. Of course, co-operative interaction with others, either children or adults, will help further their learning too.But perhaps the most pressing need for the development of relationships in infant and toddler care arises through consideration of those children who come from an unstable home environment, where their emotional needs have not been met by their parents. The social and emotional growth of these children will be furthered hindered and delayed if they are then not given any opportunity to develop a continuous, positive relationship with a primary caregiver, assigned from the time of the child’s enrolment up until he or she reaches the age of three or eve n five.How can primary and continuous care be implemented in order to develop a relationship with a child? It is the responsibility of the primary caregiver to respond appropriately to the infant or toddler to ensure that their emotional needs are met. An â€Å"appropriate† response is one that makes the child feel respected, valued and cared for. Just as all relationships take time to develop, so must primary caregivers take time to really get to know the children, become aware of their personality and temperament, their likes and dislikes and body language cues.This is the first and foremost response that will help to build a relationship and ensure children’s emotional needs are met. In order to get to know children, it is important to become sensitive to the cues and messages they send out – both verbal and non-verbal. In turn, caregivers should be vigilant about their own body language cues as well as the words they use because when children become aware of negative feedback, (both verbal and non-verbal), from their caregivers it can greatly affect their self-esteem.The caregiver should aim to give positive responses to the child, using open and friendly body language, eye contact, smiles, nodding etc. Of course, this does not mean that the caregiver must always say â€Å"yes† to a child’s demands, if those demands are unreasonable or unsafe, and assertive behavior management strategies should be applied whenever they are necessary. Along with ensuring the quality of responses and care given by the primary caregiver, continuity of care can be implemented in three ways: †¢ Children can be placed in mixed age groups. This means that the children under 2.9 years of age can be cared for in the same room, as long as the requirement ratio is adhered to for the youngest child in the group. †¢ Children can be placed in groups of the same age. This ensures that when the children are ready, they and their caregivers will move to the next environment. †¢ Children can be placed in groups of the same age, and will stay in the same room. This means that the children remain in a setting that is familiar to them, while the learning materials and resources of the room change in accordance with their developmental progress.However, the concept of primary and continuous care must take into account the fact that a major amount of the childcare day is spent doing routine care giving activities, such as toileting, hand washing, eating, etc. Since these routine activities take up so much time, the development of a relationship with the child must be prioritised during these times. In their book, The Creative Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers, Dombro, Colker and Trister-Dodge emphasise that this job of building a relationship with a child should be the focus of the caregiver’s work.Although learning activities should be included as part of a quality curriculum for a child, in practice they only for m a small part of the child’s day – the majority of that day being spent doing routine activities. Therefore the â€Å"curriculum† for a child does not only consist of learning activities. If relationship building is to be given the emphasis it deserves then the daily routines need to be considered as â€Å"curriculum† too, since the majority of daily adult-child interaction takes place during these daily routines.Routine activities can be made enjoyable and fun with lots of opportunities for learning built in; the caregiver can interact with the child in a friendly and positive way during these times, showing the child that s/he is valued and respected. If caregivers are aware of the importance of building positive relationships with the children in their care then they will have no doubts whatsoever that they must work in accordance with the maxim, â€Å"relationship is curriculum†. References Dombro, A.L. , Colker, L. J. & Trister-Dodge, D. (199 9). The Creative Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers. Washington DC: Teaching Strategies. Lieberman, A. (1993). The Emotional Life of the Toddler. New York: Free Press. Raikes, H. (1996) â€Å"A Secure Base for Babies: Applying Attachment Theory Concepts to the Infant Care Setting,† in Young Children, 51 (5), 59-67. Zero to Three (1992). Heart start: The emotional foundations of school readiness. Washington DC: Zero to Three. http://www. zerotothree. org

Bangladesh Health Care System essays

Bangladesh Health Care System essays The personal, relational and collective well-being have been the progressive feature of the health care management. However, the conceptual clarification is required for the analysis of the 'positive, needed and recent development in health promotion' (Karl, 2004), which is achievable through synergistic applications. In this regard, the health care management is urged to differentiate among 'sites, signs, sources, and strategies (Mark, 2002) associated with the well-being. The progress is the function of different parameters that includes temporal, ecological, participation, and capabilities; the application of which is approval of these domains. The temporal domain has been referred to as 'timing of interventions and entails a continuum from reactive to proactive strategies', whereas the ecological domains refers to the 'site of interventions, ranging from person-centered to community-centered' (Marika, 2002), the participation domain is the 'voice and choice of citizens and consu mers in delivery of services and access to resources' (Suad, 2003), and lastly the capabilities is reference to the potential and concentration of the strength and/or deficits. It has been argued that the concentrated and primary focus on 'strength, prevention, empowerment, or community conditions' (Gupta, 2003) is not sufficient, and framework has to be devised which ensures 'the benefits of their synergy and the risks of their fragmentation' (Gupta, 2003). The situation has been marked as the crucial interface for the 'paradigm shift in health and human services', and this requires the formulation of the strategy which shall be adopted for the reliability of the 'strengths, prevention, empowerment, and community conditions', which offers considerable protection and sustainable development of 'well-being of all' (Karl, 2004). Application of Force Field and Well-Being Paradigms The millions of Bangladeshis are not registered to any health insuranc...

Fed Action Essays

Fed Action Essays Fed Action Essay Fed Action Essay Name: Course: Lecturer: Date: : Fed Action The decision by the fed to purchase agency mortgage-based securities at $40 billion each month is intended to spur economic growth by increasing the rates of employment, and by reducing the interest rates. The fed will only review its decision once it sees signs of economic growth. Central banks use interest rates as a way of regulating the economy. The interest rates affect the rates of mortgages that people have to pay, and it determines the rates at which people borrow money. High interest rates discourage borrowing since it means that people have to pay more for the loans they have taken. On the other hand, low interest rates encourage borrowing and increase spending. The government’s decision means that it has to print more money to buy the bonds. By increasing borrowing, the government hopes that it will increase spending, and that this will in turn increase hiring opportunities, as people take more loans to create businesses. Although low interest rates are an incentive for people to borrow money, other factors affect contribute to this decision, including increase in wages and the current economic situation. Fed’s decision will ultimately decrease the interest rates, but it is doubtful whether this decrease will lead to economic growth. Banks will be more willing to increase their lending rates since they are assured of more money in their accounts (Hilsenrath and Peterson). Some people argue that quantitative easing by the government will only benefit a few individuals. They argue that people do not borrow because of low interest rates, but that their decision to borrow stems from the fact that they see an opportunity of doing so. Therefore, for many individuals, interest rates are not an incentive for borrowing. The only thing that will compel them to borrow is if they experience an increase in real wages, which will give them more confidence that they can pay their loans. Many people are paying off debts, which they have held for a long time. Many of them will not consider borrowing as a wise move, seeing that they are facing financial crisis. In addition, some people have lost their jobs, and borrowing money is not the first thing that they will consider. Some people would consider borrowing money in an economy that supports job creation, and in a stable economy. However, they are afraid of borrowing if they think that the economy will not help them support and sustain their businesses. The low interest on mortgages will only help the housing and construction industry. While low interests on mortgages make home ownership cheaper, other factors contribute towards making the decision to purchase homes. The economy cannot grow while depending on a single sector. The fed’s decision will only benefit the housing and construction industry. Several people will benefit if the housing sector improves since they will get jobs. This will also improve and enhance job creation in other related industries. However, these jobs are not a true reflection of the country’s economy, since they will not translate to an increase in jobs in other sectors. The decrease in interest rates might discourage some investors. The investors will feel that they are not getting real value for their money, and they will be reluctant to invest in the country. This will decrease the chances of the country getting more jobs. Moreover, some investors can decide to pull out of the country, and they can decide to set their jobs elsewhere, where they are guaranteed returns. This decision will mean that some companies will relocate to overseas, and this will lead to job losses. : Hilsenrath, Jon and Kristina, Peterson. Fed Acts to Fix Job Markets. Wall Street Journal. 2012. Web. 18 October, 2012

How To Use Exclamations and Exclamation Marks in Spanish

How To Use Exclamations and Exclamation Marks in Spanish As in English, an exclamation or exclamatory sentence in Spanish is a forceful utterance that can range from a single word to almost any sentence that is given extra emphasis, either by using a loud or urgent voice, or in writing by adding exclamation points. Types of Exclamations in Spanish However, in Spanish, it is very common for exclamations to take particular forms, the most common of which is starting with the exclamatory adjective or adverb quà ©. (Quà © also functions elsewhere as other parts of speech, most often as a pronoun.) When used that way, quà © can be followed by a noun, adjective, an adjective followed by a noun, or an adverb followed by a verb. When it is followed by a noun, an article is not used before the noun. Some examples:  ¡Quà © lstima! (What a shame!) ¡Quà © problema! (What a problem!) ¡Quà © vista! (What a view!) ¡Quà © bonita! (How cute!) ¡Quà © difà ­cil! (How difficult!) ¡Quà © aburrido! (How tedious!) ¡Quà © fuerte hombre! (What a strong man!) ¡Quà © feo perro! (What an ugly dog!) ¡Quà © lejos est la escuela! (The school is so far away!) ¡Quà © maravillosamente toca la guitarra! (How beautifully she plays the guitar!) ¡Quà © rpido pasa el tiempo! (How time flies!) If you follow the noun after quà © with an adjective, ms or tan is added between the two words:  ¡Quà © vida ms triste! (What a sad life!) ¡Quà © aire ms puro! (What clean air!) ¡Quà © idea tan importante! (What an important idea!) ¡Quà © persona tan feliz! (What a happy person!) Note that the ms or tan doesnt have to be translated directly. When emphasizing quantity or extent, it also is common to begin an exclamation with cunto or one of its variations for number or gender:  ¡Cuntas araà ±as! (What a lot of spiders!) ¡Cunto pelo tienes! (What a head of hair you have!) ¡Cunta mantequilla! (What a lot of butter!) ¡Cunto hambre hay en esta ciudad! (What a lot of hunger there is in this city!) ¡Cunto he estudiado! (I studied a lot!) ¡Cunto te quiero mucho! (I love you a lot!) Finally, exclamations arent limited to the above forms; it isnt even necessary to have a complete sentence.  ¡No puedo creerlo! (I cant believe it!) ¡No! (No!) ¡Policà ­a! (Police!) ¡Es imposible! (Its impossible!) ¡Ay! (Ouch!) ¡Es mà ­o! (Its mine!) ¡Ayuda! (Help!) ¡Eres loca! (Youre crazy!) Using Exclamation Points Although this rule is commonly violated in informal Spanish, especially in social media, Spanish exclamation marks always come in pairs, an inverted or upside-down exclamation point to open the exclamation and a standard exclamation point to end it. The use of such paired exclamation marks is straightforward when an exclamation stands alone, as in all the examples above, but it gets more complicated when only part of a sentence is exclamatory. The upside-down exclamation mark doesnt exist in languages other than Spanish and Galician, a minority language of Spain. When an exclamation is introduced by other words, the exclamation points surround only the exclamation, which isnt capitalized. Roberto,  ¡me encanta el pelo! (Roberto, I love your hair!)i gano el premio,  ¡yupi! (If I win the prize, yippee!) But when other words follow the exclamation, they are included inside the exclamation marks.  ¡Me encanto el pelo, Roberto! (I love your hair, Roberto.)Yupi si gano el premio! (Yippee if I win the prize!) If you have several short connected exclamations in a row, they can be treated as separate sentences or they can be separated with commas or semicolons. If theyre separated by commas or semicolons, the exclamations after the first arent capitalized.  ¡Hemos ganado!,  ¡guau!,  ¡me sorprende!(We won! Wow! Im surprised!) Special Uses of Exclamation Marks To indicate strong emphasis, you can use up to three consecutive exclamation points. The number of marks before and after the exclamation should match. Although such use of multiple exclamation points isnt used in standard English, it is acceptable in Spanish.  ¡Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ ¡No lo quiero!!! (I dont want it!) ¡Ã‚ ¡Quà © asco!! (Thats disgusting!) As in informal English, a single exclamation mark can be placed within parentheses to indicate that something is surprising. Mi tà ­o tiene 43 (!) coches. (My uncle has 43 (!) cars.)La doctora se durmià ³ (!) durante la operacià ³n. (The doctor fell asleep (!) during the operation.) An exclamation mark can be combined with a question mark when a sentence expresses incredulity or otherwise combines elements of emphasis and questioning. The order doesnt matter, although the sentence should begin and end with the same type of mark.  ¡Ã‚ ¿Pedro dijo quà ©?! (Pedro said what?) ¿!Viste Catarina en la jaula!? (You saw Catarina in jail?) Key Takeaways As in English, exclamations in Spanish are sentences, phrases, or even single words that are especially forceful.It is common for Spanish exclamation to begin with quà © or a form of cunto.Spanish exclamations begin with an inverted exclamation mark.

Barriers to trade Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Barriers to trade - Case Study Example of September 2009, the Chinese government filed an economic complaint with the WTO as a response to the announcement by the US that an ongoing plan of increasing the tariffs on the tires produced from China was about to be implemented (Bown, 2002). Consequently, on September 2010, the US Congress Committee made an approval of the bill that was to impose tariffs on China. Nonetheless, the trade relations between the Chinese government and the US government is significant to the two countries since China is reported to be the second largest trading partner of the US globally (Bown, 2002). Further, recently there have been legal battles between China and the United States. On May 23, 2014, the WTO dispute settlement panel ruled that the duties of up to 21.5 percent that were imposed by China on some of the U.S. imported vehicles were inconsistent with the WTO obligations of China. Moreover, on March 23, 2014 the WTO made a ruling that China’s restrictions on the rare earth elements as well as the two other metals were extremely inconsistent with its WTO obligations. However, the decision was later appealed on April 8. Indeed, the trade relationship between China and the USA has been strained recently and more negotiation and talks are being done to ease the tensions. On July 9 to 10 of the year 2014, the Chinese and U.S. officials held talks under the S&ED (Walker, 2014). The WTO is simply a negotiating forum which has the overall mission of promoting free trade all over the world through multilateral negotiations among the member states that is currently reported to be composed of approximately 153 members (Bown, 2002, p 54).The member states are expected to ensure that their various trade laws conform to the terms of the 16 different agreements that comprise the rules of the WTO. In case one of the member countries is of the opinion that the other country’s laws are a violation of the WTO rules, the complaining country is expected to file a complaint in the

Agency and Partnership Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Agency and Partnership Law - Essay Example ADC Ltd is a company needs 20 sets of Model XXP computers by Christmas 2009 by spending no more than  £20,000. Dan is the sales assistant from PC Express, who offers Andrew 20 sets of the new Model XXP Plus computer at a discount price of  £30,000. Andrew is sure that ADC Ltd would want the new model of computer rather than the old model and asked Dan to wait for an hour so he can speak to ADC Ltd in order to get the permission. He discloses that this order would be beyond his power and he is only acting as the agent. When Andrew rings Dan back to confirm the order he is asked specifically whether he received consent from ADC Ltd, Dan is told that it has all been sorted and that permission has been given, the order is made and the goods are delivered. However, Andrew did not in fact seek permission from ADC Ltd, he did ring but no one answered the phone call. Considering he had to contact Dan from PC Express in an hour, he concluded the deal before the written or oral permission from ADC Ltd.  After Christmas, ADC Ltd asked Andrew to buy another 35 sets of Model XXP computers due to the expansion of the business. James owns a company involved in the production of computers and his business is mainly on importing computers from China and reselling them to the customers in the UK. James has just imported some Model XXP Computers from China. Knowing that Andrew often works as an agent for many companies in the computer business he contacted him with the purpose of concluding a contract.

Culture and International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Culture and International Business - Essay Example Yet, McDonalds own brand also gave the company problem that is more pronounced than any other american brands. Perhaps there are no other American brands which had been patently labeled and stereotyped as a symbol of American imperialism than that of McDonalds. This issue is magnified by the fact McDonalds typically becomes a target (usually by vandalism) everytime there are protests against the American government abroad. The irony of it is that perhaps there are no other fast food chain in the market that exerts that much effort than McDonalds to assimilate with the local culture where it operates. Its franchises outside of North America are not even run by Americans but by the locals who took pains to customize its offerings just to cater to the local preference. But no matter what it does, McDonalds will always be associated with American imperialism. This misconception about McDonalds is not only limited to cultural labeling but extends to social status as well. Section II: McDo nalds, cheap yet classy? McDonalds is also having a social stratification issue on how it should position itself in the market. Shall it serve the mid section and upper section or the upper section of the market? Market response is ambivalent that it proves difficult to categorize which market should McDonals concentrate. In emerging markets such as Russia, China, even including South Asia, McDonalds is considered to be a restaurant that is a class above the rest and highly esteemed as a brand. Eating at McDonalds can even be considered as a status symbol. Yet in its major market in the United States and Europe where it derives two thirds of its revenue, the fast food chain is considered to be a cheap food, something to be eaten just to survive not to mention unhealthy. As a food, McDonalds does not have the respect in its major market compared to the esteemed it have in emerging markets. In UK, it even came to a point that McDonalds will be taxed alleging that it is damaging people ’s health and costs the health care substantial amount. In the United States, parents are even suing the company for misleading them over its nutritional value. These ambivalence of market’s reaction towards McDonalds makes it difficult for the company to adopt a universal market strategy to penetrate the global market. What it does is to constantly adapt to the eccentricities of its local market whose magnitude of its assimilation may have already changed the company itself. Section 3. Who influences who with McDonalds? In its effort to assimilate with the preferences of its local markets, McDonalds customizes its menu in a myriad of ways to the point of departure to its original menu. In Germany, McDonalds can be served with beer. In Israel, McDonald’s burgers does not have cheese. In India, its patties are not made of beef. In UK, traditional supersize meals are no longer welcome and is replaced by healthy offerings. The list goes on and on with the changes M cDonalds have implemented just to cater to the differing taste preference of its local market. These change is not only limited to McDonald’s food offerings but also extends to its suppliers. Along with the changing menu is also the change of suppliers to make such change in menu possible. These change in suppliers makes it patently un-McDonald because a

Does it matter whether or not firms pay dividends Why Essay

Does it matter whether or not firms pay dividends Why - Essay Example Those companies use that undistributed earnings to reinvest in the business and thereby increase the size of the organisation. Evidently, this practice may adversely affect the financial interests of company shareholders. However, the current market position of the firm particularly influences the implications of non-payment of dividends on the business. This paper will specifically discuss what happens whether or not firms pay dividends. Why some companies pay dividends while some others do not? Undoubtedly, a company tends to pass its earnings to shareholders as remuneration for their investments and hence to retain their interests in the company. When an organisation pays attractive dividends, existing shareholders can significantly gain from their investments. It forces shareholders to stay with the company, and the payment of dividends may also assist the company to attract new potential stakeholders (‘Investor Relations’ 2010). It is clear that dividends paid for a fiscal period is appeared on the consolidated balance sheet prepared at the end of that period. Investors mainly scrutinise current dividend rates so as to decide whether or not to purchase the stocks of the firm. Usually, if investors find that the company offers poor dividend rates, they would not be much interested in investing in that firm. It must be noted that the price of a share is greatly affected by the demand for that particular share in the stock market. Thus, poor dividend rates and non-payment of dividends may cause the firm’s stock prices to decline. Evidently, no company would be willing to accept a decline in its share prices. Therefore, today many of the companies strive to meet its investors’ interests and to attract new potential investors by paying attractable dividends to stockholders. In contrast, rapidly growing concerns would keep maximum money with them so as to promote further growth. Hence, those concerns would not pay dividends. Even a mat ure organisation which believes that it has further growth potential may choose to reinvest its earnings into the business. Companies that do not pay dividends may use the saved money to invest in a new project, acquire new assets, repurchase their shares that have been sold to outsiders, or even to buy out a running company. Many firms avoid paying dividends to eliminate the huge expenses of issuing new stocks. By keeping their full earnings with them, companies can get rid of the risk of raising funds to meet their various needs. Does it matter whether or not firms pay dividends? The implications of payment or non-payment of dividends on the business may vary according to the investors’ actual investment interests. If the business is still rapidly growing and the investor has long term interests in the company, then non-payment of dividends would not matter. More precisely, when an investor aims at high rates of returns on his investment in the long term, he would be willin g to sacrifice his short term financial interests for the long term growth of the firm. As discussed already, the reinvestment of earnings in the business would greatly assist a growing organisation to fuel its business growth. Therefore, a financially sound investor would support reinvestment of profits for the further growth of the business. From a tax perspective, non-payment of dividends can better serve the financial interes

Internal and External Factors Paper on Bridgestone Essay

Internal and External Factors Paper on Bridgestone - Essay Example The essay will use the Bridgestone Corporation as the case study and according to Qontro Business Profiles (2008); Bridgestone is a Japanese multinational corporation that was established in 1931 and its main specialty is the manufacture of motor vehicle tires. However, the company also deals in other diversified products that include a wide range of industrial products such as conveyor belts, water houses, and polyurethane foam. Other products include Bridgestone branded bicycles, Bridgestone aircraft tire, and an array of golf products. The company has a wide global presence that is supported by more than 140 production facilities that are spread wide across 24 countries. In reference to the studies by Daft (2011), he described planning as the as the core function of management and even the foundation of the other three functions of management. In the planning process, Bridgestone’s management diagnose the status or health of the company in line with the planned future goals and objectives of the company, and then devise appropriate action plans that will enable the attainment of these goals and objectives. However, Hersey et al. (2000) stated the planning factor is influenced by both external and internal factors and at times, these factors may be uncontrollable thereby potentially affecting Bridgestone in a positive and/ or negative manner. Daft, R. (2011) stated that the act of realigning a company with these external and internal factors is referred to as strategic planning. During strategic planning, the external factor of globalization always makes Bridgestone’s managers consider the impact of competition from their rivals that include Firestone. Secondly, the issue of globalization ensures that managers of the company make strategic plans that will position the company to strategically compete in the international market and keep in

Does it matter whether or not firms pay dividends Why Essay

Does it matter whether or not firms pay dividends Why - Essay Example Those companies use that undistributed earnings to reinvest in the business and thereby increase the size of the organisation. Evidently, this practice may adversely affect the financial interests of company shareholders. However, the current market position of the firm particularly influences the implications of non-payment of dividends on the business. This paper will specifically discuss what happens whether or not firms pay dividends. Why some companies pay dividends while some others do not? Undoubtedly, a company tends to pass its earnings to shareholders as remuneration for their investments and hence to retain their interests in the company. When an organisation pays attractive dividends, existing shareholders can significantly gain from their investments. It forces shareholders to stay with the company, and the payment of dividends may also assist the company to attract new potential stakeholders (‘Investor Relations’ 2010). It is clear that dividends paid for a fiscal period is appeared on the consolidated balance sheet prepared at the end of that period. Investors mainly scrutinise current dividend rates so as to decide whether or not to purchase the stocks of the firm. Usually, if investors find that the company offers poor dividend rates, they would not be much interested in investing in that firm. It must be noted that the price of a share is greatly affected by the demand for that particular share in the stock market. Thus, poor dividend rates and non-payment of dividends may cause the firm’s stock prices to decline. Evidently, no company would be willing to accept a decline in its share prices. Therefore, today many of the companies strive to meet its investors’ interests and to attract new potential investors by paying attractable dividends to stockholders. In contrast, rapidly growing concerns would keep maximum money with them so as to promote further growth. Hence, those concerns would not pay dividends. Even a mat ure organisation which believes that it has further growth potential may choose to reinvest its earnings into the business. Companies that do not pay dividends may use the saved money to invest in a new project, acquire new assets, repurchase their shares that have been sold to outsiders, or even to buy out a running company. Many firms avoid paying dividends to eliminate the huge expenses of issuing new stocks. By keeping their full earnings with them, companies can get rid of the risk of raising funds to meet their various needs. Does it matter whether or not firms pay dividends? The implications of payment or non-payment of dividends on the business may vary according to the investors’ actual investment interests. If the business is still rapidly growing and the investor has long term interests in the company, then non-payment of dividends would not matter. More precisely, when an investor aims at high rates of returns on his investment in the long term, he would be willin g to sacrifice his short term financial interests for the long term growth of the firm. As discussed already, the reinvestment of earnings in the business would greatly assist a growing organisation to fuel its business growth. Therefore, a financially sound investor would support reinvestment of profits for the further growth of the business. From a tax perspective, non-payment of dividends can better serve the financial interes

Training Program for Priority Plastics, Inc Assignment - 7

Training Program for Priority Plastics, Inc - Assignment Example The coverage of this module includes the explanation of the injection molding machine and its significance in the business of the company. It will also introduce the principles of injection molding machines that will serve as their theoretical foundation. Â  New hires will be taught about the different parts of the injection machine to be able to determine damaged parts that could cause a problem in the future. They will be also taught about the basic operation of the injection molding machine. This module will emphasize safety, efficiency, and productivity. Â  The module will teach the trainees about the entire molding process. The molding process includes familiarity with the raw material used to make plastics, how the injection machine operate and mold the materials into plastic and how to control and operate the machine. Â  In this module, trainees will be taught on how to independently operate an injection machine from the operations point of view. This is the stage where trainees will be handling actual operation which is apart and separate from theoretical introductions in the previous modules. This module will enable trainees to do the mold according to company’s safety and quality standard. Â  Job-training will teach trainees proficiency in the operation of the machines in a production floor environment. In this stage, trainees are no longer in the classroom but in the actual production floor.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example for Free

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay In his book, ‘post-traumatic stress disorder source book’, Schiraldi, Glenn identifies three major causes of post-traumatic stress disorder. These are, â€Å"intentional Human causes (the most difficult to recover from), unintentional Human causes and the acts of Nature (least complex and can be resolved quickly)† (Schiraldi, 2000: pg.4). The intentional human causes include those traumatic events that are intentionally caused or triggered by humans. These events include war, rape, physical torture, robbery with violence, use of bombs and explosions, killing someone, kidnapping and holding others hostage. Unintentional human causes involve those traumatic events that occur accidentally. These include car accidents, plane crash, collapse of a building, fire and exposure to nuclear reactants. There are also post-traumatic stress disorders that are caused by events of nature. These natural catastrophes are always more severe and disastrous. It includes earthquakes, flood, drought, outbreak of certain diseases, hurricanes and occurrence of volcanic activities. Other cause that may trigger post-traumatic stress disorder involves the changes in the normal biochemical rate in the brain which results to a condition known as Neuroendocrinology. Apart from this condition, morphological changes in the brain have also been identified as another cause of post-traumatic stress disorder. Various studies have shown that the existence of amygdale in the brain usually result to the development of emotional flashbacks. These flashbacks are mainly those related to worry and horror. Genetics have also been identified as another cause leading to post-traumatic stress disorder. Various studies in genetics have shown that some characteristics that are possessed by a parent who is suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder are sometimes passed on to the children. These characteristics that are usually passed to the children include violence and aggressiveness. Signs and symptoms: The signs and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder usually manifest itself within three to four months following the trauma. In other cases, these symptoms might last for a year or even several years. The symptoms in most cases manifest in various ways as discussed below. 1) Recurring memories: Memories and experiences of the real traumatic event usually re-emerge in form of dreams, images and thoughts. The re-emergence of these memories is usually unexpected and the victim usually undergoes difficult moment since the memories are so hard to bear. Such memories in most cases inflict feelings of fear to the victim, anger and also guilt. In his book, Schiraldi Glenn provides an example to this scenario by stating that, â€Å"a survivor of a Russian prisoner-of –war camp often daydreams, absorbed in unpleasant memories and out of touch with his surroundings. A number of cues can trigger this re-experience, including thin soup, walking in the woods, Russian music, a harsh rebuke by a supervisor, or any unpleasant confrontation. Sometimes there is no apparent connection to the thoughts or feelings that are replayed,† (Schiraldi, 2000: pg 7). Recurring memories usually manifest in terms of nightmares. These nightmares in most cases reflect the accurate traumatic events or almost similar events as those of the real trauma. Most individuals who experience nightmares in most cases do not get enough sleep as they are being interrupted by the imaginations. Recurring memories can also manifest in terms of flash backs. Flash backs makes an individual feel as if the real traumatic events are being revived and can influence the behavior and the feelings of an individual. 2) Arousal: Post-traumatic stress disorder is also characterized by over reaction of an individual to any event that seems to cause panic. The victims’ reaction becomes spontaneous due to the sensitivity of the nervous system as a result of destructive traumatic events. The reaction of an individual to even smaller interruptions is as spontaneous as the bigger ones. As a result of arousal, an individual usually develops difficulties in falling asleep, lacks concentration, becomes short tempered, overcautious, develops fear to the recurrence of the same event, becomes over expectant to disasters and overprotective. 3) Avoidance or numbing: Because the thoughts of traumatic events are very painful to most of the victims, most people suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder usually look for various ways of avoiding the reminders to such events. In most cases, they avoid talking about it while in other instances they restrict their minds from thinking about such events. Most of the victims therefore end up staying indoors to avoid coming in contact to reminders of the tragic events. 4) The normal routine of an individual is disrupted: One losses interest in his/her future ambitions due to too much cautiousness and the avoidance of exploring different avenues and mingling with other people to gain more knowledge. Victims of post-traumatic stress disorder are therefore in most cases locked in their own world. Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: Treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder is mainly aimed at relieving symptoms because there is no treatment that can completely wipe out the post-traumatic stress disorder. Treatment can therefore be achieved by use of two methods. These include use of drugs and non-drug treatment methods. Non-drug treatments involve the following; a) Cognitive therapy: It is believed that different ways of thinking can lead to various mental disorders including the post-traumatic stress disorder. Therefore, during the cognitive therapy, the patient is advised on various thinking patterns and how to avoid false perceptions and thoughts. They are also thought on the importance of thinking positively and constructively. At the end of every session, each and every patient is given an assignment to go and try it out at home (http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain). b) Eye movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: This treatment usually involves therapist asking the patient to think about any traumatic occurrence. As the patient is thinking about the event, the therapist moves his/her fingers so that the patient can follow it with his/her eyes (Schmeltzer Bhagar, 2007). It is not clear how this treatment works but after a couple of therapy session, most of the patients are no longer worried by the thoughts of the event. c) Individual Help: This involves all the individuals having the same signs coming up together. The patients can then share their experiences and learn from one another on the possible ways of overcoming the trauma. Medication treatment: a) Antidepressant drugs: These drugs are in real sense used in the treatment of depression but it has also been found out to suppress the post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. They usually work by blocking the chemicals in the brain that lead to the development of the symptoms. These drugs usually take two to four weeks or even months before their results can be noticed. b) Benzodiazepines: These drugs are used for short term mainly to reduce the chances of an individual not falling asleep and also to get rid of those symptoms leading to sleep interruptions. The problem with this drug is that they are not effective if taken for a longer period of time. The patient is supposed to use it within two to three weeks (Rose Armstrong 1997). Prevention: Post-traumatic stress can be prevented by employing the following measures; 1) Debriefing: This technique is usually employed to soldiers after war and also to those victims that underwent through events of natural catastrophes (Schmeltzer Bhagar, 2007). It mainly involves victims exchanging feelings and thoughts about the tragic event. 2) Immediate therapy: Studies have shown that incase an individual is provided with therapy within the first two weeks of trauma, the chances of individual developing long term post-traumatic stress disorder is drastically reduced. 3) Taking short medication drugs: Drugs such as benzodiazepine when taken by the victim immediately, the chances of him/her developing long-term symptoms is also reduced. Conclusion: Though most of the victims of post-traumatic stress take long to experience the symptoms; it is very crucial that an individual who is suffering from trauma seek for help immediately. The treatment that the victim is able to obtain will be very useful as it will suppress the long term symptoms from re-emerging. Victims of trauma that usually don’t get treatment can be completely crippled by the post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Some victims may feel guilt of surviving a tragic event or not providing enough assistance to those who perished. These may negatively affect on the normalcy of an individual.

Light Emitting Diode | Dissertation

Light Emitting Diode | Dissertation Introduction Alight-emitting diode(LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across thevisible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diodeis forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is calledelectroluminescenceand thecolorof the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.LEDs present manyadvantagesover incandescent light sources includinglower energy consumption, longerlifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current andheat managementthan compactfluorescent lampsources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements foraviation lighting,automotive lighting(particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as intraffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.InfraredLEDs are also used in theremote controlunits of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances. History Discoveries and early devices Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal ofSiCrecreatesH. J. Rounds original experiment from 1907. Electroluminescenceas a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenterH. J. RoundofMarconi Labs, using a crystal ofsilicon carbideand acats-whisker detector.RussianOleg Vladimirovich Losevreported on the creation of a first LED in 1927.His research was distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of theRadio Corporation of Americareported on infrared emission fromgallium arsenide(GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures usinggallium antimonide(GaSb), GaAs,indium phosphide(InP), andsilicon-germanium(SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77kelvin. In 1961, American experimenters Robert Biard and Gary Pittman working atTexas Instruments,found that GaAs emitted infrared radiation when electric current was applied and received the patent for the infrared LED. The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 byNick Holonyak Jr., while working atGeneral Electric Company.Holonyak is seen as the father of the light-emitting diode.M. George Craford,a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T.P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths. Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US $200 per unit, and so had little practical use.TheMonsanto Companywas the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Hewlett Packard(HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to have major uses for alphanumeric displays and was integrated into HPs early handheld calculators. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices at fewer than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with theplanar processinvented by Dr. Jean Hoerni atFairchild Semiconductor.The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue to be u sed by LED producers. History Of LEDs and LED Technology Light Emitting Diode (LED) Light Emitting Diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction semiconductor diode that emits a monochromatic (single color) light when operated in a forward biased direction. The basic structure of an LED consists of the die or light emitting semiconductor material, a lead frame where the die is actually placed, and the encapsulation epoxy which surrounds and protects the die (Figure 1). The first commercially usable LEDs were developed in the 1960s by combining three primary elements: gallium, arsenic and phosphorus (GaAsP) to obtain a 655nm red light source. Although the luminous intensity was very low with brightness levels of approximately 1-10mcd @ 20mA, they still found use in a variety of applications, primarily as indicators. Following GaAsP, GaP, or gallium phosphide, red LEDs were developed. These devices were found to exhibit very high quantum efficiencies, however, they played only a minor role in the growth of new applications for LEDs. This was due to two reasons: First, the 700nm wavelength emission is in a spectral region where the sensitivity level of the human eye is very low (Figure 2) and therefore, it does not appear to be very bright even though the efficiency is high (the human eye is most responsive to yellow-green light). Second, this high efficiency is only achieved at low currents. As the current increases, the efficiency decreases. This pr oves to be a disadvantage to users such as outdoor message sign manufacturers who typically multiplex their LEDs at high currents to achieve brightness levels similar to that of DC continuous operation. As a result, GaP red LEDs are currently used in only a limited number of applications. As LED technology progressed through the 1970s, additional colors and wavelengths became available. The most common materials were GaP green and red, GaAsP orange or high efficiency red and GaAsP yellow, all of which are still used today (Table3). The trend towards more practical applications was also beginning to develop. LEDs were found in such products as calculators, digital watches and test equipment. Although the reliability of LEDs has always been superior to that of incandescent, neon etc., the failure rate of early devices was much higher than current technology now achieves. This was due in part to the actual component assembly that was primarily manual in nature. Individual operators performed such tasks as dispensing epoxy, placing the die into position, and mixing epoxy all by hand. This resulted in defects such as epoxy slop which caused VF (forward voltage) and VR (reverse voltage) leakage or even shorting of the PN junction. In addition, the growth methods and materia ls used were not as refined as they are today. High numbers of defects in the crystal, substrate and epitaxial layers resulted in reduced efficiency and shorter device lifetimes. Gallium Aluminum Arsenide It wasnt until the 1980s when a new material, GaAlAs (gallium aluminum arsenide) was developed, that a rapid growth in the use ofLEDsbegan to occur. GaAlAs technology provided superior performance over previously availableLEDs. The brightness was over 10 times greater than standardLEDsdue to increased efficiency and multi-layer, heterojunction type structures. The voltage required for operation was lower resulting in a total power savings. TheLEDscould also be easily pulsed or multiplexed. This allowed their use in variable message and outdoor signs.LEDswere also designed into such applications as bar code scanners, fiber optic data transmission systems, and medical equipment. Although this was a major breakthrough inLEDtechnology, there were still significant drawbacks to GaAlAs material. First, it was only available in a red 660nm wavelength. Second, the light output degradation of GaAlAs is greater than that of standard technology. It has long been a misconception withLEDsthat lig ht output will decrease by 50% after 100,000 hours of operation. In fact, some GaAlAsLEDsmay decrease by 50% after only 50,000 -70,000 hours of operation. This is especially true in high temperature and/or high humidity environments. Also during this time, yellow, green and orange saw only a minor improvement in brightness and efficiency which was primarily due to improvements in crystal growth and optics design. The basic structure of the material remained relatively unchanged. To overcome these difficult issues new technology was needed.LEDdesigners turned to laser diode technology for solutions. In parallel with the rapid developments inLEDtechnology, laser diode technology had also been making progress. In the late 1980s laser diodes with output in the visible spectrum began to be commercially produced for applications such as bar code readers, measurement and alignment systems and next generation storage systems.LEDdesigners looked to using similar techniques to produce high brightness and high reliabilityLEDs. This led to the development of InGaAlP (Indium Gallium Aluminum Phosphide) visibleLEDs. The use of InGaAlP as the luminescent material allowed flexibility in the design ofLEDoutput color simply by adjusting the size of the energy band gap. Thus, green, yellow, orange and redLEDsall could be produced using the same basic technology. Additionally, light output degradation of InGaAlP material is significantly improved even at elevated temperature an d humidity. Current Developments of LED Technology InGaAlPLEDstook a further leap in brightness with a new development by Toshiba, a leading manufacturer ofLEDs. Toshiba, using the MOCVD (Metal Oxide Chemical Vapor Deposition) growth process, was able to produce a device structure that reflected 90% or more of the generated light traveling from the active layer to the substrate back as useful light output (Figure 4). This allowed for an almost two-fold increase in theLEDluminance over conventional devices.LEDperformance was further improved by introducing a current blocking layer into theLEDstructure (Figure 5). This blocking layer essentially channels the current through the device to achieve better device efficiency. As a result of these developments, much of the growth forLEDsin the 1990s will be concentrated in three main areas: The first is in traffic control devices such as stop lights, pedestrian signals, barricade lights and road hazard signs. The second is in variable message signs such as the one located in Times Square New York which displays commodities, news and other information. The third concentration would be in automotive applications. The visibleLEDhas come a long way since its introduction almost 30 years ago and has yet to show any signs of slowing down. A BlueLED, which has only recently become available in production quantities, will result in an entire generation of new applications. BlueLEDsbecause of their high photon energies (>2.5eV) and relatively low eye sensitivity have always been difficult to manufacture. In addition the technology necessary to fabricate theseLEDsis very different and far less advanced than standardLEDmaterials. The blueLEDsavailable today consist of GaN (gallium nitride) and SiC (silicon carbide) construction with brightness levels in excess of 1000mcd @ 20mA for GaN devices. Since blue is one of the primary colors, (the other two being red and green), full color solid stateLEDsigns, TVs etc. will soon become commercially available. Full colorLEDsigns have already been manufactured on a small prototype basis, however, due to the high price of blueLEDs, it is still not practical on a large scale. Other applications for blueLEDsinclude medical diagnostic equipment and photolithography. LED Colors It is also possible to produce other colors using the same basic GaN technology and growth processes. For example, a high brightness green (approximately 500nm)LEDhas been developed that is currently being evaluated for use as a replacement to the green bulb in traffic lights. Other colors including purple and white are also possible. With the recent introduction of blueLEDs, it is now possible to produce white by selectively combining the proper combination of red, green and blue light. This process however, requires sophisticated software and hardware design to implement. In addition, the brightness level is low and the overall light output of each RGB die being used degrades at a different rate resulting in an eventual color unbalance. Another approach being taken to achieve white light output, is to use a phosphor layer (Yttrium Aluminum Garnet) on the surface of a blueLED. In summary,LEDshave gone from infancy to adolescence and are experiencing some of the most rapid market growth of their lifetime. By using InGaAlP material with MOCVD as the growth process, combined with efficient delivery of generated light and efficient use of injected current, some of the brightest, most efficient and most reliableLEDsare now available. This technology together with other novelLEDstructures will ensure wide application ofLEDs. New developments in the blue spectrum and on white light output will also guarantee the continued increase in applications of these economical light sources. Practical use The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements forincandescentandneonindicator lamps, and inseven-segment displays,first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list ofsignal uses). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors grew widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led to use for illumination, which is fast replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting. (see list ofillumination applications). Most LEDs were made in the ve ry common 5mm T1 ¾ and 3mm T1 packages, but with rising power output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain reliability,so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-arthigh power LEDsbear little resemblance to early LEDs. Continuing development The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated byShuji NakamuraofNichia Corporationand was based onInGaNborrowing on critical developments inGaNnucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN which were developed byIsamu Akasakiand H. Amano inNagoya. In 1995,Alberto Barbieriat theCardiff UniversityLaboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a very impressive result by using a transparent contact made ofindium tin oxide(ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. The existence of blue LEDs and high efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the firstwhite LED, which employed aY3Al5O12:Ce, or YAG, phosphor coating to mix yellow (down-converted) light with blue to produce light that appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2006Millennium Technology Prizefor his invention. The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output torise exponentially, with a doubling occurring about every 36 months since the 1960s, in a way similar toMoores law. The advances are generally attributed to the parallel development of other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science. This trend is normally calledHaitzs Lawafter Dr. Roland Haitz. In February 2008, 300lumensof visible light per wattluminous efficacy(not per electrical watt) and warm-light emission was achieved by usingnanocrystals. In 2009, a process for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon has been reported.Epitaxycosts could be reduced by up to 90% using six-inch silicon wafers instead of two-inch sapphire wafers. Illustration of Haitzs Law. Light output per LED as a function of production year, note the logarithmic scale on the vertical axis Technology Physics The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting materialdopedwith impurities to create ap-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, oranode, to the n-side, orcathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electronsandholes—flow into the junction fromelectrodeswith different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lowerenergy level, and releasesenergyin the form of a photon. Thewavelengthof the light emitted, and thus its color depends on theband gapenergy of the materials forming thep-n junction. Insiliconor germaniumdiodes, the electrons and holes recombine by anon-radiative transitionwhich produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gapmaterials. The materials used for the LED have adirect band gapwith energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made withgallium arsenide. Advances inmaterials sciencehave enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also usesapphiresubstrate. Most materials used for LED production have very highrefractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus,light extraction in LEDsis an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development. The inner workings of an LED I-V diagram for adiode. An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltageis exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2-3volts. Refractive Index Idealized example of light emission cones in a semiconductor, for a single point-source emission zone. The left illustration is for a fully translucent wafer, while the right illustration shows the half-cones formed when the bottom layer is fully opaque. The light is actually emitted equally in all directions from the point-source, so the areas between the cones shows the large amount of trapped light energy that is wasted as heat. The light emission cones of a real LED wafer are far more complex than a single point-source light emission. Typically the light emission zone is a 2D plane between the wafers. Across this 2D plane, there is effectively a separate set of emission cones for every atom. Drawing the billions of overlapping cones is impossible, so this is a simplified diagram showing the extents of all the emission cones combined. The larger side cones are clipped to show the interior features and reduce image complexity; they would extend to the opposite edges of the 2D emission plane. Bare uncoated semiconductors such assiliconexhibit a very highrefractive indexrelative to open air, which prevents passage of photons at sharp angles relative to the air-contacting surface of the semiconductor. This property affects both the light-emission efficiency of LEDs as well as the light-absorption efficiency ofphotovoltaic cells. The refractive index of silicon is 4.24, while air is 1.00002926. Generally a flat-surfaced uncoated LED semiconductor chip will only emit light perpendicular to the semiconductors surface, and a few degrees to the side, in a cone shape referred to as thelight cone,cone of light,or theescape cone.The maximumangle of incidenceis referred to as thecritical angle. When this angle is exceeded photons no longer penetrate the semiconductor, but are instead reflected both internally inside the semiconductor crystal, and externally off the surface of the crystal as if it were amirror. Internal reflectionscan escape through other crystalline faces, if the incidence angle is low enough and the crystal is sufficiently transparent to not re-absorb the photon emission. But for a simple square LED with 90-degree angled surfaces on all sides, the faces all act as equal angle mirrors. In this case the light cannot escape and is lost as waste heat in the crystal. A convoluted chip surface with angledfacetssimilar to a jewel orfresnel lenscan increase light output by allowing light to be emitted perpendicular to the chip surface while far to the sides of the photon emission point. The ideal shape of a semiconductor with maximum light output would be amicrospherewith the photon emission occurring at the exact center, with electrodes penetrating to the center to contact at the emission point. All light rays emanating from the center would be perpendicular to the entire surface of the sphere, resulting in no internal reflections. A hemispherical semiconductor would also work, with the flat back-surface serving as a mirror to back-scattered photons. Transition coatings Many LED semiconductor chips arepottedin clear or colored molded plastic shells. The plastic shell has three purposes: 1. Mounting the semiconductor chip in devices is easier to accomplish. 2. The tiny fragile electrical wiring is physically supported and protected from damage 3. The plastic acts as a refractive intermediary between the relatively high-index semiconductor and low-index open air. The third feature helps to boost the light emission from the semiconductor by acting as a diffusing lens, allowing light to be emitted at a much higher angle of incidence from the light cone, than the bare chip is able to emit alone. Efficiency and operational parameters Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30-60mWof electrical power. Around 1999,Philips Lumiledsintroduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at oneW. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die. One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficacy,[dubious-discuss]as measured by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficacy of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with aluminous efficacyof 18-22 lumens per watt (lm/W). For comparison, a conventional 60-100 Wincandescent light bulbemits around 15 lm/W, and standardfluorescent lightsemit up to 100 lm/W. A recurring problem is that efficacy falls sharply with rising current. This effect is known asdroopand effectively limits the light output of a given LED, raising heating more than light output for higher current. In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the companyCree Inc.to provide 24mW at 20milliamperes(mA). This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006, they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Also,Seoul Semiconductorplans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008,which would be nearing an order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and better than even standard fluorescents.Nichia Corporationhas developed a white LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA. Practical general lighting needs high-power LEDs, of one watt or more. Typical operating currents for such devices begin at 350 mA. Note that these efficiencies are for the LED chip only, held at low temperature in a lab. Lighting works at higher temperature and with drive circuit losses, so efficiencies are much lower.United States Department of Energy(DOE) testing of commercial LED lamps designed to replace incandescent lamps orCFLsshowed that average efficacy was still about 46 lm/W in 2009 (tested performance ranged from 17lm/W to 79lm/W). Cree issued a press release on February 3, 2010 about a laboratory prototype LED achieving 208 lumens per watt at room temperature. The correlatedcolor temperaturewas reported to be 4579K. Lifetime and failure Main article:List of LED failure modes Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limitedwear and tearif operated at low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. The most common symptom of LED (anddiode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs were notable for their short lifetime. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to higherjunction temperaturesand higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L75 and L50 which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 75% and 50% light output respectively. Like other lighting devices, LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers published ratings of LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25 °C. LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the luminaire gets very hot, could result in low signal intensities or even failure. LED light output actually rises at colder temperatures (leveling off depending on type at around −30C). Consequently, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as supermarket freezer lightingand will last longer than other technologies. Because LEDs emit less heat than incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient technology for uses such as freezers. However, because they emit little heat, ice and snow may build up on the LED luminaire in colder climates.This lack of waste heat generation has been observed to cause sometimes significant problems with street traffic signals and airport runway lighting in snow-prone areas, although some research has been done to try to develop heat sink technologies to transfer heat to other areas of the luminaire. Ultraviolet and blue LEDs BlueLEDs. Blue LEDs are based on the wideband gapsemiconductors GaN (gallium nitride) andInGaN(indium gallium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green LEDs to produce the impression of white light, though white LEDs today rarely use this principle. The first blue LEDs were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove (inventor of the gallium nitride LED) atRCA Laboratories.These devices had too little light output to be of much practical use. In August of 1989, Cree Inc. introduced the first commercially available blue LED.In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaNepitaxialgrowth andp-typedoping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, in 1993 high brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated. By the late 1990s, blue LEDs had become widely available. They have an active region consisting of one or more InGaNquantum wellssandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative InN-GaN fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can be varied from violet to amber. AlGaNaluminium gallium nitrideof varying AlN fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of the InGaN-GaN blue/green devices. If the active quantum well layers are GaN, instead of alloyed InGaN or AlGaN, the device will emit near-ultraviolet light with wavelengths around 350-370nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN-GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems. With nitrides containing aluminium, most oftenAlGaNandAlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375-395nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, asblack lightlamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeitingUV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorter wavelength diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to 247nm.As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum ofDNA, with a peak at about 260nm, UV LED emitting at 250-270nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices. Deep-UV wavelengths were obtained in laboratories usingaluminium nitride(210nm),boron nitride(215nm)anddiamond(235nm). White light There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. One is to use individual LEDs that emit threeprimary colors—red, green, and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due tometamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. RGB systems Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state semiconductor LEDs.FWHMspectral bandwidth is approximately 24-27 nm for all three colors. White lightcan be formed by mixing differently colored lights, the most common method is to usered, green and blue(RGB). Hence the Care Of Diabetic Foot: How To Prevent Amputation Care Of Diabetic Foot: How To Prevent Amputation Introduction Diabetes mellitus is defined as a metabolic disorder characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia with metabolism disturbances in carbohydrate, protein and fat because of defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both (SIGN 2010). Diabetes mellitus is one of the main causes of increasing morbidity and mortality in Scotland and worldwide every years (SIGN 2010). Diabetes leads to several problems that begins with many of symptoms and debility on the short term and ending with a wide complications such as blindness, renal failure and amputation. Furthermore, diabetes has a significant impact on increasing the mortality and premature death from cardiovascular disease such as stroke and myocardial infarction (Massi-Benedetti 2002). Globally, the international diabetes federation (IDF) estimated the number of adults (between 20 79 years) with diabetes mellitus disease in 2010 around 285 million in seven regions of the IDF, and estimated the percent of adults with diabetes in 2010 in Europe 8.6%, United Kingdom 4.9%, United States of America 12.3% and similarly at both Jordan and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 7.5% (IDF Diabetes Atlas 2010). And to the same years, the IDF estimated that the number of deaths due to diabetes mellitus is approximately 3.9 million deaths annually which represents 6.8% of all total global mortality (IDF 2009) . Moreover the number of people who have diabetes were approximately 39 million in 2007 and the expected gradual increase 439 million in 2030 (IDF 2009).Furthermore, in another study the IDF estimated that 23 million years of life are lost due to disability, decrease quality of life and reduce lifespan of person as a result of complications related to diabetes (Egede and Ellis, 2010). T he cost of treating and preventing diabetes globally in 2007 was approximately $ 232 billion, this number is expected to increase to over $300 billion in 2025 (Egede and Ellis, 2010). The United State of America spent in 2002 around $132 billion on diabetes (Egede 2006), and spent around $10.9 billion in 2001 on treating diabetic foot ulceration and amputations (Gordois et al. 2003). Also, The United Kingdom spent in 2001 approximately 5% of the total National Health Service (NHS) expenditure ( £3 billion) on diabetes mellitus (Wild et al. 2004). The Diabetic foot complications cost the United Kingdom approximately  £252 million each year (Adam et al. 2003). Every 30 seconds a lower extremity is lost in patients with diabetes due to amputation in the world (IDF 2009). Additionally, around 5% of European population suffer from Type 2 diabetes mellitus (IDF Diabetes Atlas 2007). India was the country with the highest numbers of patients with diabetes mellitus in Asia (Wild et al. 2004). The complications of diabetes remain very common in the developing countries such as diabetic foot and amputations (IDF 2005) the same as other developing countries in the world. Boulton et al (2005) identified that there are several factors that contribute to the increase complications and incidence of diabetic foot; these include late discovery of the disease and diabetic foot complications; the presence of catalysts such as neuropathy and high infected complications helps, moreover, deficiencies in podiatry service in most countries, barefoot gait which is common in some cultures and some of social beliefs and cultural traditions which are still in control of some communities and drives patients with diabetes to use and to depended on traditional healers, village elders and alternative medicine for treating themselves . In Sub-Saharan Africa, which contains 33 countries from the list of 50 poorest countries in the world; these countries are facing a significant increase in the rate of diabetes during the next twenty years (Wild et al. 2004). Diabetic foot complications are a major cause of increasing public health problem, leading cause of admissions to hospitals, amputation and increased mortality rate in diabetic patients (Zulfiqarali and Lennox, 2005). The main reasons leading to increase rate of diabetic foot in Africa were the frequency of neuropathy and peripheral vascular disease, unhygienic conditions, poverty, barefoot gait and inappropriate foot wear, low income, urbanisation, frequent co-existing HIV infection, and cultural beliefs and incorrect practices (Boulton et al. 2005). Risk of developing foot ulcers during lifetime of diabetes patient is approximately as high as 25 % (Singh et al. 2005). The International Diabetes Foundation confirmed that awareness regarding foot complications must be increased between diabetic patients because of its positive impact on personal, social, medical, and economic costs (Boulton 2004). Implementing screening, educational, and treatment programs globally in every area of the world was the biggest challenge facing the Global Diabetes Community (Boulton et al. 2005). A diabetic patient faces many problems caused by diabetic foot such as pain, morbidity and substantial economic consequences. The infection rate by diabetic foot differs between developing and developed countries and between European countries. Globally 25%-90% of all amputations were caused by diabetes (Boulton et al. 2005). The cost of treating diabetic foot ulcers was affected by the implementations of some interventions to prevent the development of foot ulcers, care strategies to heal ulcers or wound to prevent inflammation and amputation, shorten period of wound healing, and by frequent care necessary for disability after amputation (Tennvall and Apelqvist, 2004). In Europe and North America 7-20% from of the total expenditure is spent on diabetes and more precisely on the diabetic foot care (Boulton et al. 2005). In a Swedish prospective study it was estimated that diabetic patient with foot ulcers cost around 37% of the total costs on foot ulcers care until healed without amputation but if the patient needs amputation the inpatient care will cost up to 65% of the total costs, and also costs around 45% of the total costs using topical treatment of wounds but this percentage changes to 13% in patients with amputation (Boulton et al. 2005). The economic costs of minor lower limb amputation (foot level) such as toes around $43,800 and for main lower limb amputation (above ankle) such as all foot around $66,215, of which 77% of the costs comes post-amputation (Boulton et al. 2005). Applying foot-care services such as screening, education, treatment can effectively the rate of amputation among diabetes patients (Boulton et al. 2005). Furthermore, treatment of diabetic patients with or without diabetic foot according to the present management guidelines would result in enhanced survival and significantly reduced number of diabetic foot complications. Furthermore, it leads to significant reduction of up to 25-40% from the total economic costs of treating ulceration and amputation (Ortegon et al. 2004). Also, the adherence of diabetes patient to education and treatment is very important, effective and playing important role to prevent diabetes complication and improvement of patient health (Boulton et al. 2005). Aims and objectives Aims: To create more awareness of diabetic foot complication and foot care. To promote foot health in individual with diabetes and minimise the risk of foot complication. To identify major causes that lead to foot ulcers and how to prevent them. To inform people with diabetes about the actions and measures they can take to prevent occurrence of foot complications, provide diabetes self care education and encourage patients to change their behaviours to enhance foot hygiene and appropriate foot wear. To inform patients how to look after their wounds or ulcers. To reduce risk of lower extremity complication and amputation between diabetic patients. To try and improve the flow of information and intervention between patients and health care specialists. To enhance communication between diabetic patients and multidisciplinary care team. Objectives: Educate diabetic patient about good foot hygiene, diabetes risk factors, wound care, and about appropriate foot wear. Provide education about foot care by regular monitoring identification and early detection of ulcers, determination of risk factors such as (Neuropathy, Ischemia, Deformity, Callus, Oedema). Educate patient about the risk factors that can are increase diabetic foot complications such as poor fittings shoes, smoking, obesity, blood pressure, high lipids, aging and positive history to ulcers or amputation. Educate patient about proper footwear, nails care and wound care. Outcomes: Patient will have good circulation to feet. Patient will identify and take action when injury occurs. Patient will know how to take care of his feet. Patient will be able to determine the risk factors to diabetes ulceration and lower limb amputation. Patient will identify and select appropriate foot wear. Patient will be able to identify the importance of wound care, early detection of ulcers, good diet and exercise, regular monitoring and assessment of foot, adjust the level of sugar in the blood and stop smoking. Interventions Worldwide, 3.2 million deaths reported in relation to diabetes complications every year, also one in twenty deaths in the world due to diabetes resulting in 8700 deaths daily, this is equivalent to 6 deaths every minute (Unwin and Marlin, 2004). Study was estimated incidence of foot ulcers each year to diabetes patient around 2-6%, a prevalence of 3-8%, also estimated recurrence rates of ulcers within 5 years approximately 50-70%, the average of healing ulcers of 11-14weeks and the rates of incident of amputation after a one year estimated by 15%. However, the cost of diabetic foot include direct costs related to foot complications and also indirect costs related to loss of productivity, patient and family economic costs and loss of quality of life (Boulton et al. 2005). In a prospective study following up patients after foot ulcer healing, explained the return ulceration rates to patient after 1 years was 34%, at 3 years was 61% and at 5 years 70%. The diabetic patients with recurre nt ulcers, the highest costs were for hospitalise care, social services, and self care in home (Boulton et al. 2005). Diabetic foot complications are very common worldwide; it leads to social, political and economic impacts on society, patients and their families (Boulton et al. 2005). When Paul Brand was asked to suggest a recommendation to reduce amputations and foot complications in diabetes patient to the US Department of Health conference, most of the attendees were probably expecting an answer of both either promoting vascular surgery or modern medications, but they were surprised to hear that his answer was the recommendation to encourage health care professionals and caregivers to remove patients shoes, socks and after that examine and assess feet, many countries in the world ignored these recommendations. Although, the assessment of foot does not require expensive equipment for example a tuning fork, pin, tendon hammer and 10g monofilament these are cheap and suffice(Boulton 2004; Singh et al. 2005). The education should be focused on the diabetic patients with high risk feet. Furthermore, when planning an educational programme the caregivers should not forget that many patients donated are unable to understand what neuropathy, nephropathy, ischemia or risks of foot ulcers means (Vileikyte et al. 2004). Because of that the education should be simple, easy to understand by patients and suitable for the culture and social background of the patient (Boulton et al. 2005). First: Risk Factors One amputation occurs every 30 seconds worldwide between diabetic patients (Bakker et al. 2005). Approximately 15% of diabetic patients develop foot ulcers (Edmonds 2008). Amputation occurs more with diabetes patient than patient without diabetes (SIGN 2010). Three main pathologies factors must be met for the beginning and stimulation development of diabetic foot complications: neuropath, ischemia and infection. Furthermore, People with diabetes mellitus are higher to develop lower limb amputation between 15-46 times more than people without diabetes mellitus (Wilson 2005). Neuropathy is the most frequent and common complications in diabetic patients. It affects around 50% from all diabetic patients (Wilson 2005). The danger lies in the loss of protective sensation to pain, thus patient feel or recognise the pain or any discomfort in the lower extremity (Urbancic-Rovan, 2005). Ischaemia is four times more common in people with diabetes than in people without diabetes. Some of the factors that lead to increased occurrence of ischaemia were smoking, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. Usually it develops gradually and slowly in diabetic patients, but in the end leads to a severe decrease in arterial perfusion and results in compromising vascular supply of the skin, and most often leads to a minor or major trauma in the lower extremity (Wilson 2005). Ischaemia and neuropathy are mostly associated together in diabetic patient (Edmonds and Foster, 2005) Infection of wound or ulcers in diabetes patient is the main reason for admission to hospital, and also increasing the incidence of amputation, when the infection is associated with neuropathy and ischaemia it leads to higher incidence of infection without pain, furthermore, leads to the loss of some of the inflammatory response such as increased temperature and white blood cell count (Wilson 2005). Additionally risk factors identified by (Urbancic-Rovan, 2005) that can effect diabetes patient and lead to ulceration and lower extremity amputation includes: Foot deformity because of motor neuropathy and muscle atrophy. Callus growth and formation. Disability in joint mobility. Reduced metabolic control leading to impaired wound or ulcer healing. Positive history to foot ulcer or lower limb amputation. Autonomic neuropathy that leads to gradually decreased sweating and dry fissured skin in foot. Obesity. Retinopathy. Inappropriate footwear. Smoking. Older people. Socioeconomic status. Interventions: Early detection and screening in addition to appropriate management of these ulcers can lead to preventing up to 85% of amputation (Edmonds and Foster, 2005). To provide effective treatment and management the patient should know and understand the major causes and risk factors for ulceration and amputation, meticulous treatment plan and should have frequent routine screening (Wilson 2005). Moreover, regular screening and assessment for feet of diabetes patient give the patient the opportunity of up to 99.6% to keep his feet free from ulcerations (follow up at 1.7 years) and were 83 times less probable to incident ulcers than the high- risk group (SIGN 2010). Teaching patients about the metabolic management, such as the control of blood glucose by regular diet, exercise, insulin and medication to protect neurological function. Patient should be educated on how to treat blood pressure, high lipids and should be encouraged to stop smoking to preserve cardiovascular function, prevent the occurrences of ischemia and enhance blood supply to lower extremity (Edmonds 2008). Encourage diabetic patient to daily foot examination and inspection, full monitoring of his feet by specialist diabetes doctor or nurse every 4 months and full screening and examination test every 6 month (Michael et al. 2005). All diabetes patients when diagnosed with diabetes mellitus should be educated and encouraged to be screen and examine his foot regularly or at least annually to detect any risk factors for foot ulcers as early as possible (Edmonds 2008). And to assess their risk of beginning a foot ulcer complication (SIGN 2010). patients should be screened for the main risk factors which include: Neuropathy, which is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus and begins to produce primitive signs that emerge within 5 years of the onset of the disease (Hampton 2006). The neuropathy can be assessed by the use simple techniques such as 10g monofilament to assess pressure sensation in patient. On the other hand, the use of vibration perception threshold by using a neurothesiometer to assess patients (Edmonds 2008). Because the vibration perception threshold is more sensitive than the 10g monofilament especially in persons at risk for foot ulcers (Miranda-Palma et al. 2005). Ischaemia assessed by palpation of the dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial pulse, if it cannot be felt it is unlikely that there is significant ischaemia. So the significant factor indicating ischaemia is the reduced Doppler arterial waveform. But the American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommended that the ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI) should be measured for all diabetic patient especially patients above 50 years of age (Edmonds 2008). Faglia et al (2005) showed in his study that 21% of the occurrence of peripheral arterial disease was indicated by a low ABPI in recently diagnosed diabetic patients. Deformity such as claw toes, pes cavus, hallux valgus, hallux rigidus, hammer toe, Charcot foot and nail deformities; these deformities lead to bony prominences and causes high mechanical pressures on the skin surface, thus leads to ulceration, especially in the absence of protective pain sensation and feeling, and when wearing inappropriate shoes. Thus any diabetes patient, who has any deformities, should be educated how to care for his feet (Edmonds 2008). Callus and Oedema: the presence of callus leads to ulceration because of the high pressure and friction on it. Also the oedema is the main factor causing ulceration, and often produced when patient is wearing inappropriate and poorly fitting shoes (Edmonds 2008). Diabetic patient should be educated about signs of infection. Swelling, redness and hotness, all of this are present with signs of systemic infections. Patient must visit a medical clinic immediately (Michael et al. 2005). Second: Foot care Diabetic foot complications are common complications between United Kingdome populations, according to statistics, 23-42% related to neuropathy, 9-23% vascular disease and 5-7% foot ulceration (SIGN 2010). Diabetic foot care guideline is very important and should be the main part of basic diabetic patient education programs and workshops (Michael et al. 2005). Interventions: Diabetes patient and caregivers nurses or physician should be taught the nail cutting techniques (Michael et al. 2005). Nails of diabetes patient should be cut when they are softer and flexible, therefore, the patient should cut his nails after a bath or shower; the patient should never try to cut the whole nail as one piece, cut out the corner of the nail or more down the sides of nail (Edmonds 2008). Patient should be educated to use the soft brush to clean about the nails and if the nails become thick, the nails care should be performed by a professional nurse or physician (Michael et al. 2005). Patient education regarding foot hygiene, nail care, general assessment of foot care and patient should know when and how to ask for help when having any symptoms, problems or any suspicions around his foot (Wilson 2005). Encourage patient to wear natural fibre socks, it is better to be white to simply detect any derange or bleeding from foot (Michael et al. 2005). Footwear may reduce the rate of amputation by 50% when it is used perfectly (Bloomgarden 2008). Footwear (shoes) should be padded with soft leather from the inside and have a broad rounded toes, with an elevated toe box, the heels must be low to prevent excessive pressure on toes, and they must be the appropriate size to prevent movement and friction within the shoe (Edmonds 2008). If the diabetic patient has any deformity in his foot it should be detected early and appropriate shoes selected before any complication occurs. The diabetes foot wear included to three main types: Sensible shoes it is used to protect diabetic patient with partial loss of sensation (low risk to develop foot ulceration). Readymade stock shoes it is used to patient who has few deformities, neuroischaemic feet and that needs to be protected almost all the time (moderate risk to develop foot ulceration). Customized shoes it is made specifically for patients with deformities and contains appropriate insoles to relieve pressure on the foot (Edmonds 2008). The custom-built footwear should be used to decrease callus severity and reduce ulcer repetition (SIGN 2010). Diabetic patient who have lost protective sensation and cannot feel normally in lower extremity should be protecting their feet from any mechanical, thermal, chimerical injury because of that they should be encouraged to develop a habit of regularly examining and inspecting their feet to detect any problem or complication early. In addition should be educated about type 2 diabetes to protect themselves as far as possible to avoid the occurrence of any injury (Edmonds 2008). If patient have lost their sensation in the lower extremity, recurring trauma, limited joint mobility, poor healing and have ischaemia in lower limb, all of this lead to increased incidence of ulceration and in addition amputation (Bloomgarden 2008). Should educate diabetic patients how to prevent dry skin to prevent ulceration, by applying emollient or lotion such as E45 cream on a daily basis (Reckitt Benckiser, Slough) or Calmurid cream (Galderma, Watford) (Edmonds 2008). Patient should be encouraged to use daily oil, lotion and lanolin cream to prevent dryness of skin (Michael et al. 2005). If patients have callus they should be educated not to cut their callus or use any product to remove it. Also the callus should be removed gradually by podiatrist to prevent ulceration (Edmonds 2008). Patient should not use any removers to remove corns or callus (Michael et al. 2005). The podiatrist can reduce effectively the number and size of foot calluses and enhance self care (SIGN 2010). Should be encouraged to do path to his foot daily with mild soap to promote blood circulation. Furthermore, patient should dry the feet carefully and use lambs wool between the toes if the skin stays moist or become macerated (Michael et al. 2005). The occurrence of foot wounds is 2-7% per year among diabetes patient (Bloomgarden 2008). Also the patient and caregivers should be educated about sterile dressings technique, the dressing should be covering all wound or ulcers to prevent infection, protect patient foot from any trauma, and promote wound healing (Edmonds 2008). Patient with wound or ulcers should be frequently assessed and inspected specially if the patient has lost protective pain sensation to early detect any development of complications or problems, because of this the dressing should be characterized by: uncomplicated and speed lifting, The ability to walk by without any trouble or suffering disintegration, good ability to monitor and evaluate the secretions and abscess (Edmonds 2008). Action plan: Agreed strategy for foot care such as protocol or guideline driven care of the patient. Involvement of a multidisciplinary foot team to include: diabetic nurse specialist, podiatrist, vascular and orthopaedic surgeon, diabetes physician, orthotist and radiologist. Education for staff and all caregivers looking after the feet of diabetic patients. Establishment and enhancement of good communication between the diabetic patient and multidisciplinary foot team and the primary medical doctor. Reinforcement using appropriate foot wears. Encouragement of diabetic patients to effectively liaising with the podiatrist. Maintain wound care by using appropriate and sterile dressings. Encouragement of community nurses to educate people, especially about diabetes mellitus, diet, insulin, diabetes medication and the risk of complications. Activate discussion groups and workshops for patients with diabetes in primary medical centres. Facilitating the knowledge, skill and human resources for the promotion of diabetes self care. Conclusion and recommendations Diabetes mellitus is defined as a metabolic disorder characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia with metabolism disturbances in carbohydrate, protein and fat because of defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both (SIGN 2010). Approximately 39 million person in 2007 diagnosed with diabetes and an expected gradual increase to 439 million in 2030 (IDF 2009). The diabetes Cost in 2007 worldwide was approximately $ 232 billion and expected to increase to over $300 billion in 2025 (Egede and Ellis, 2010). Every 30 seconds, a lower extremity is lost to diabetes due to amputation in the world (IDF 2009). Diabetic foot complications very common worldwide, also leads to big social, political and economic impacts to both society and to the patient and their families. Paul Brand, suggest a real recommendation to reducing amputations and foot complications to the US Department of Health conference that is to encourage multidisciplinary foot team to remove patients shoes, socks and after that examine and assessment patient feet. The diabetic foot is a significant healthcare problem worldwide and inadequate appropriate therapy may lead to the spread of serious complications such as amputation, disability and increase morbidity and mortality rate each year globally. Therefore, careful monitoring, regular assessment, patient education and education for the specialist team caring for diabetic foot ulcers are very important and significant. Furthermore, early detection and specialized treatment of any risk factors plays significant part to prevent foot complications and reducing the amputation rate. Diabetes leads to dramatically increased risk of diabetic foot and amputation, but available evidence based guidelines or protocols that this risk may be significantly reduced by effective screening and intervention. The multidisciplinary foot team should screen all diabetic patients regularly to early detect those at risk for foot ulceration and this screening should include all risk factors and all assessment procedure. Educating patients and caregivers about foot care and risk factors, full examination every 6 month or at least annually, appropriate footwear, daily self foot examination, wound care, smoking cessation, control of blood glucose level, activation of community nurses, enhance communication between diabetic patient and multidisciplinary foot team. All of these measures should be applied and adhered by patient firstly, and by all caregivers secondly to reduce diabetic foot complication and prevent amputation.